Independence of the USA

> "We hold these truths to be self-evident..." — Declaration of Independence, 1776
> 

### Overview

The independence of the United States refers to the process by which the thirteen British colonies in North America declared and secured their separation from Great Britain, culminating in the American Revolutionary War and the establishment of a new nation.

### Background and Causes

- Taxation and representation: New imperial taxes and regulations after the Seven Years’ War, such as the Stamp Act and Townshend Acts, intensified colonial objections to “taxation without representation.”
- Imperial authority vs. local self-government: Many colonists believed their traditional rights were being eroded by Parliament’s attempts to legislate for the colonies without consent.
- Escalating conflicts: Incidents like the Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party deepened mistrust and provoked punitive measures (the Coercive/Intolerable Acts).

### From Protest to War

- First Continental Congress (1774): Coordinated colonial response and petitions to the Crown.
- Armed conflict begins (April 1775): Battles at Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts mark the start of open warfare.
- Second Continental Congress (1775–1781): Served as a de facto national government, raising armies and seeking foreign support.

### Declaring Independence

- Thomas Paine’s Common Sense (Jan 1776): Popular pamphlet arguing for full separation and republican government.
- Lee Resolution (June 1776): Proposed that “these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States.”
- Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776): Drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson, adopted by Congress, asserting natural rights, listing grievances against the King, and proclaiming the colonies independent states.

### The Revolutionary War (1775–1783)

- Early campaigns: Mixed results; British capture of New York (1776), American resilience at Trenton and Princeton.
- Turning point at Saratoga (1777): American victory helped secure French alliance and support.
- Global war: France (1778), Spain (1779), and the Dutch Republic (1780) entered against Britain, stretching British resources worldwide.
- Southern theater and Yorktown (1781): Combined American-French forces trapped British General Cornwallis at Yorktown, leading to his surrender.

### International Recognition and Peace

- Treaty of Paris (1783): Britain recognized U.S. independence and established boundaries to the Mississippi River. It addressed fishing rights and the evacuation of British forces.

### Building a New Nation

- Articles of Confederation (ratified 1781): First national framework emphasizing state sovereignty, but with limited central powers.
- Constitutional Convention (1787) and the U.S. Constitution (ratified 1788): Created a stronger federal system with checks and balances.
- Bill of Rights (ratified 1791): First ten amendments protecting individual liberties.

### Key Ideas and Legacies

- Natural rights and popular sovereignty: Governments derive “just powers from the consent of the governed.”
- Republicanism and civic virtue: Emphasis on representation, rule of law, and citizen participation.
- Contradictions and exclusions: Enslavement persisted, Indigenous nations were excluded, and many groups lacked political rights—tensions that shaped future reform movements.

### Timeline at a Glance

- 1765–1774: Rising tensions and imperial crises
- April 1775: War begins at Lexington and Concord
- July 4, 1776: Declaration of Independence adopted
- Oct 1777: American victory at Saratoga
- 1778–1780: Foreign alliances expand the war
- Oct 1781: British surrender at Yorktown
- 1783: Treaty of Paris ends the war; independence recognized
- 1787–1789: Constitution drafted and ratified

### Further Reading

- The Declaration of Independence
- The Federalist Papers
- Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution
- Pauline Maier, American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence
- Jill Lepore, These Truths: A History of the United States

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